Discovery Medicine

Abstract: Rotaviruses (RVs) are a large genetically diverse population of segmented double-stranded (ds) RNA viruses that are important causes of gastroenteritis in many animal species. The human RVs are responsible for the deaths of nearly 450,000 infants and young children each year, most occurring in developing countries. Recent large-scale sequencing efforts have revealed that the genomes of human RVs typically consist of phylogenetically linked constellations of eleven dsRNA segments. The presence of such preferred constellations indicate that the human RV genes have co-evolved to produce protein sets that work optimally together to support virus replication. Two of the viral genes encode virion outer capsid proteins (VP7 and VP4) whose antigenic properties define the G/P type of the virus. From year-to-year and place-to-place, the G/P type of human RVs associated with disease can fluctuate dramatically, phenomena that can be associated with the presence and behavior of genetically distinct RV clades. The recent introduction of two live attenuated RV vaccines (RotaTeq^TM and Rotarix^TM) into the childhood vaccination programs of various countries has been highly effective in reducing the incidence of RV diarrheal disease. Whether the widespread use of these vaccines will introduce selective pressures on human RVs, triggering genetic and antigenic changes that undermine the effectiveness of vaccinations programs, is uncertain and will require continued surveillance of human RVs. ... Read more

Abstract: We are in the midst of a resurgence of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in North America and Europe for which morbidity and mortality are higher than ever seen. C. difficile has risen in frequency to become the most common healthcare-associated infection pathogen, exceeding methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in many hospitals. Protection against CDI is thought to be mediated first by the normal bacterial microbiota, supplemented by an adaptive immune antibody response directed primarily at C. difficile toxins. Treatment of CDI is with antimicrobials that also further disrupt the protective bacterial microbiota leaving the patient susceptible to recurrent CDI. In addition, patients most susceptible to CDI, the advanced elderly, may already have a limited immune response and fail to increase their adaptive immune response with infection. The importance of both of these protective modalities has been demonstrated by 1) the success of fecal microbiota to restore "colonization resistance" for patients with multiple recurrences of CDI, and 2) the marked reduction in CDI recurrences with the use of intravenous monoclonal antibodies directed against toxin A and toxin B as an adjunct to antimicrobial treatment. Anti-toxin vaccines, passive monoclonal anti-toxin antibodies, and non-toxigenic C. difficile (to restore colonization resistance) are already undergoing patient clinical trials. The opportunity to prevent CDI is compelling and future research should focus on understanding the critical elements of the microbiota needed to restore colonization resistance and on development of novel immunologic strategies that include systemic and mucosal vaccines and passive immune modulators. ... Read more

Abstract: Behavioral heterogeneity within a given patient cohort has been a major challenge in clinical practice and is probably most prominently observed in the field of oncology. This has been the prime impetus of the cutting-edge preclinical and clinical research studies over recent times, many of which seek to further stratify patients based on patients' genetic, proteomic, and metabolic profile (the three key components of "-omics" research), in order to select the appropriate therapy according to an individual's best-fit. Data from functional radionuclide imaging particularly that obtained from PET-CT, with regard to characterization of an individual's tumor phenotype, can play a very important role in answering some of the critical decision-making questions on an individual basis. The role of molecular imaging with PET, SPECT, and planar radionuclide technologies is not confined to early response assessment of administered therapeutics (which is its major benefit compared to conventional methods), rather it has a much broader perspective and encompasses multiple steps in decision making steps of patient management. The immense impact of the radionuclide-based molecular imaging techniques on the selection of an appropriate treatment (at initial diagnosis, during therapy, or after therapy) or in defining the tumor biology has been documented and increasingly recognized through both large and small-scale studies. However, there has been relatively less systematic effort towards the development of a successful and definitive clinical model of "personalized cancer medicine" (based on accurate disease triaging on an individual basis) by the medical community that would be suitable for routine adoption. In this paper, an endeavor has been made to explore the potential of this approach and underscore the areas that would require further critical evaluation to make this a reality. ... Read more

Abstract: Bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps) are phylogenetically conserved signaling molecules that belong to the transforming growth factor beta superfamily. Although these proteins were first identified because of their ability to induce ectopic bone and cartilage formation, they are also involved in the cascades of body patterning and morphogenesis. Recently, several reports have indicated that the administration of pharmacological doses of Bmps inhibits and repairs acute and chronic renal injury in animal models. However, its mechanism of action and physiological function are not well understood. In addition, the exogenous administration of Bmps causes undesired side effects in other tissues, because Bmp receptors are widely expressed. The activities of Bmps are regulated by Bmp antagonists, which bind directly to Bmp and inhibit its binding to the receptor. Thus, the Bmp antagonists that modulate endogenous Bmp activities may be possible new therapeutic targets for kidney disease. In this review, we discuss recent findings related to Bmp antagonists modifying the function of Bmps in kidney disease. ... Read more

Abstract: Aim: To test and evaluate direct sagittal-plane tumor delineation for MRI-based image-guided brachytherapy (IGBT) planning for patients with cervical cancer. Materials and Methods: An image registration method based on the sagittal source MR images was developed and employed in ten patients with an indwelling ring/tandem applicator. The gross tumor volume (GTV) was delineated separately on the sagittal (GTV-S) and axial images (GTV-A). GTV conformity indices and dose-volume histogram analyses were compared among GTV-S and GTV-A (paired t-test). Results: Image quality and delineation in the sagittal images was graded superior to the axial images. The ratio of common volume of the axial and sagittal volumes to that of the axial volume was 0.77 +/- (standard deviation) 0.2. The GTV-S mean volume (19.6 +/- 13.8 mL) was significantly larger than the GTV-A mean volume (10.3 +/- 7.3 mL, p=0.003). The GTV-S mean D99 (5.2 +/- 2.5 Gy) was significantly lower than the GTV-A mean D99 (6.9 +/- 2.7 Gy, p=0.013). The GTV-S mean D90 (6.8 +/- 2.8 Gy) was significantly lower than the GTV-A mean D90 (8.5 +/- 3.1 Gy, p=0.016). Conclusions: Registration of the sagittal source MRI and contouring the GTV directly on the sagittal images is feasible and practical for IGBT. Consistently larger sagittal GTVs may be explained by the better visualization and more continuous tumor topology in the sagittal plane, compared to the discrete oblique sectioning of the uterus/tumor and partial volume loss in the axial plane. ... Read more

Abstract: Early diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment remains a key strategy to control both HIV and tuberculosis (TB). However, HIV and TB control programs have had completely contrasting successes, especially with the development and deployment of point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. Clinicians, researchers, and public health staff who work at the frontlines of HIV care and control have had access to an outstanding array of POC diagnostics at their disposal, including those used for screening, initial diagnosis, staging, treatment monitoring, and early infant diagnosis. The field has also advanced to consider over-the-counter, self-testing options for HIV and the use of multiplexed platforms that allow for simultaneous detection of infections associated with HIV. In sharp contrast to HIV, suboptimal and delayed diagnosis of TB has perpetuated the epidemic in many high-burden countries. Although the TB diagnostics pipeline is substantially better today than it was even five years ago, absence of a simple POC test continues to be a gaping hole in the pipeline. In this review, we compare the POC diagnostics landscape and pipelines for these two important infectious diseases, and highlight gaps and unmet needs. ... Read more

Abstract: Drug transporters mediate the movement of endobiotics and xenobiotics across biological membranes in multiple organs and in most tissues. As such, they are involved in physiology, development of disease, drug pharmacokinetics, and ultimately the clinical response to a myriad of medications. Genetic variants in transporters cause population-specific differences in drug transport and are responsible for considerable inter-individual variation in physiology and pharmacotherapy. The purpose of this review is to provide a broad overview of how inherited variants in transporters are associated with disease etiology, disease state, and the pharmacological treatment of diseases. Given that there are thousands of published papers related to the interplay between transporter genetics and medicine, this review will provide examples that exemplify the broader focus of the literature. ... Read more

Abstract: Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the leading cause of death among gynecological malignancies worldwide. The five-year survival rates for stage IIIC and IV patients are 29% and 13%, respectively. Type-2 EOC cells have been found to be associated with this late stage disease. In contrast, women diagnosed in stage 1 disease, which mostly exhibits type-1 cells, have a high 5-year survival rate (90%). Recent progress in understanding the pathogenesis of EOC and inflammatory signaling pathways revealed that type-2 cells frequently express a deleted or mutated TP53 (60-80%), or aberrations in BRCA1 (30-60%) and BRCA2 (15-30%). The deletion or mutation of TP53 results in a dysregulated inflammatory signal network and contributes to an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Thus, to be effective, EOC therapy may be necessary to cover two areas: (1) direct cytotoxic killing of cancer cells; (2) reversion of the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Presently the first strategy is advancing rapidly while the second strategy remains behind. Isolation and characterization of cancer stem cells (CSCs) have helped to confirm the dynamic role of the tumor microenvironment in promoting cancer metastasis and recurrence. Based on widely published in vitro and mouse-model data, some anti-inflammatory phytochemicals appear to exhibit activity in modulating the tumor microenvironment. Specifically, apiegenin, baicalein, curcumin, EGCG, genistein, luteolin, oridonin, quercetin, and wogonin repress NF-kappaB (NF-κB, a proinflammatory transcription factor) and inhibit proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6. Additionally, most of these phytochemicals have been shown to stabilize p53 protein, sensitize TRAIL (TNF receptor apoptosis-inducing ligand) induced apoptosis, and prevent or delay chemotherapy-resistance. Recent studies further indicate that apigenin, genistein, kaempferol, luteolin, and quercetin potently inhibit VEGF production and suppress ovarian cancer cell metastasis in vitro. Lastly, oridonin and wogonin were suggested to suppress ovarian CSCs as is reflected by down-regulation of the surface marker EpCAM. Unlike NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs), well documented clinical data for phyto-active compounds are lacking. In order to evaluate objectively the potential benefit of these compounds in the treatment of ovarian cancer, strategically designed, large scale studies are warranted. ... Read more

Abstract: The study of epigenetic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases is receiving unprecedented attention from clinicians and researchers in the field. Autoimmune disorders comprise a wide range of genetically complex diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. Together they affect a significant proportion of the population and have a great economic impact on public health systems. Epigenetic mechanisms control gene expression and are influenced by external stimuli, linking environment and gene function. A variety of environmental agents, such as viral infection, hormones, certain drugs, and pollutants, have been found to influence the development of autoimmune diseases. On the other hand, there is considerable evidence of epigenetic changes, particularly DNA methylation alterations, in diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or multiple sclerosis. However, the gap in our understanding between the specific effects of external agents and the influence on epigenetic profiles has not yet been filled. Here we review a number of studies describing epigenetic alterations in autoimmune diseases and a range of environmental factors that influence the development of autoimmune diseases. We also discuss potential mechanisms linking environment and epigenetics, consider the prospects for future epigenetic studies addressing the relationship between environment and epigenetics, and comment on the use of drugs with an epigenetic-reversing effect in the clinical management of these diseases. ... Read more

Abstract: Vaccine-preventable diseases are still responsible for the deaths of more than 1 million children under the age of 5 years annually, mostly in developing countries. A substantial number of these deaths are due to pneumococcal bacteria and infections with rotavirus. Important issues faced by the WHO, governments, vaccine manufacturers, and international organizations such as UNICEF and the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) are the cost-effective introduction of these life-saving vaccines in resource-poor countries where there is a considerable disease burden, and achieving high rates of completion of vaccination schedules remains elusive. Problems with vaccine coverage and vaccine delivery in these regions are significant, as in some cases large proportions of the target population do not receive adequate vaccination. Consequently, there is a need to develop more effective vaccination strategies that can provide adequate protection with reduced schedules. To date, emphasis has been placed on identifying novel vaccine antigens and adjuvants that induce stronger protective immune responses, as well as developing mucosally-administered vaccines. These approaches would have enormous benefits in allowing safe administration of vaccines in remote areas and may overcome the necessity for multiple doses. In this regard, the use of probiotic bacteria as novel mucosal adjuvants to enhance existing vaccine specific-immune responses offers an exciting new approach. In this review, we discuss the evidence for the role of probiotics in enhancing vaccine responses and provide justification for further investigation into their clinical effects and mechanisms of action. ... Read more